Mbale ya ASTM A240 Yopanda Chitsulo: Magiredi, Kumaliza ndi Kuyesa
Chiyambi
Mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri ya ASTM A240Ndi chinthu chosapanga dzimbiri chopindidwa bwino chomwe chimaperekedwa pansi pa mfundo zomwe zimawongolera mtundu wa chinthucho, kapangidwe ka mankhwala ndi mawonekedwe a makina a mbale yophimbidwa, pepala ndi mzere. Chimagwiritsidwa ntchito pa zotengera zopanikizika, matanki, zida zopangira, zida zomangira ndi kupanga zinthu zambiri. Ogula ayenera kufotokoza mtundu weniweni, kukula kwake, kumaliza kwake, muyezo wololera, mtundu wa satifiketi ndi mayeso owonjezera chifukwa dzina la ASTM A240 lokha silimafotokoza bwino zomwe zaperekedwa.
Mfundo Zofunika Kwambiri:ASTM A240 imatanthauzira zofunikira pakukula kwa zinthu ndi magwiridwe antchito. ASTM A480 nthawi zambiri imatchulidwa pazofunikira zonse zoyitanitsa, kulekerera kwa miyeso, kumaliza pamwamba ndi malamulo owunikira. ASME SA240 ndi mfundo zokhudzana ndi zinthu za ASME zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga ma code pomwe zivomerezedwa ndi malamulo oyendetsera kapangidwe. EN 10204 3.1 MTC iyenera kuyang'aniridwa motsutsana ndi chizindikiro cha mbale yeniyeni, nambala ya kutentha, miyeso ndi oda yogulira.
Dongosolo lathunthu laukadaulo liyenera kusiyanitsa mbale yokulungidwa ndi yotenthedwa ndi pepala lokulungidwa ndi lozizira, kufotokozera ngati pali zowongolera za makulidwe odziwika kapena ochepa, kuzindikira mayeso ofunikira osawononga ndikufotokozera ngati mbaleyo idzagwiritsidwa ntchito popereka mphamvu, kapangidwe kake, kuwononga kapena kutentha kwambiri.
Kodi ASTM A240 imaphimba chiyani?
ASTM A240/A240M imaphimba mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri ya chromium, chromium-nickel ndi chromium-manganese-nickel, pepala ndi mzere wopangidwira zombo zopanikizika ndi ntchito wamba. Chigawocho chimaphatikizapo ntchito zamafakitale, zomangamanga, nyumba ndi kukongola. Muyezowu umakhazikitsa zofunikira za mankhwala ndi malire a katundu wa makina pamitundu yolembedwa.
ASTM A240 siilowa m'malo mwa zofunikira zonse zogulira. ASTM A480/A480M nthawi zambiri imagwiritsidwa ntchito limodzi nayo pazofunikira zonse zazinthu, kuphatikizapo kusintha kololedwa kwa miyeso, kutsiriza, kukonza, kuyang'anira, kuchuluka kwa mayeso, ndi zambiri zoyitanitsa.
Deta ya Zamalonda ndi Malo Oyang'anira Mafotokozedwe
| Chinthu | Zosankha Zachizolowezi | Cheke cha Wogula |
|---|---|---|
| Fomu Yogulitsa | Mbale yokulungidwa ndi moto, pepala lokulungidwa ndi ozizira, pepala lodulidwa lopangidwa ndi mzere kapena lopangidwa ndi coil | Lembani mbale, pepala kapena mzere momveka bwino. |
| Muyezo | ASTM A240/A240M kapena ASME SA240 | Tsimikizani kope lofunikira ndi kuvomereza khodi. |
| Miyeso | Kukhuthala, m'lifupi, kutalika ndi kulekerera kwa polojekiti | Fotokozani ngati makulidwe a dzina kapena ochepa akuwongolera. |
| Malizitsani | Nambala 1, 2D, 2B, BA, Nambala 4, yopukutidwa kapena yopangidwa mwamakonda | Gwirizanitsani kumaliza ndi zofunikira pakupanga ndi ntchito. |
| Zolemba | MTC, lipoti la PMI, lipoti la UT, lipoti la dimensional ndi satifiketi yowunikira | Lembani malipoti ofunikira musanapange. |
Magiredi Ofala a ASTM A240
ASTM A240 imaphatikizapo mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zitsulo zosapanga dzimbiri zopangidwa ndi austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex ndi zitsulo zosapanga dzimbiri zopangidwa ndi alloy kwambiri. Kupezeka kwa kalasi kumadalira makulidwe, m'lifupi, njira yopangira mphero komanso kuchuluka kochepa kwa oda. Ogula ayenera kugwiritsa ntchito dzina la UNS kuti apewe kusokoneza pakati pa mayina amalonda ndi ofanana ndi madera.
| Giredi | UNS | Khalidwe la Zinthu | Kagwiritsidwe Ntchito Kawirikawiri |
|---|---|---|---|
| 304 / 304L | S30400 / S30403 | Chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri cha chromium-nickel austenitic chogwiritsidwa ntchito nthawi zonse | Zipangizo za chakudya, matanki, kupanga zinthu ndi ntchito zomangamanga. |
| 316 / 316L | S31600 / S31603 | Kalasi ya austenitic yokhala ndi molybdenum | Utumiki wa mankhwala, mankhwala, mlengalenga wa m'nyanja ndi chakudya. |
| 321/347 | S32100 / S34700 | Magiredi osapanga dzimbiri a austenitic okhazikika | Zigawo zolumikizidwa zimayikidwa pa kutentha kwakukulu. |
| 310S | S31008 | Mtundu wapamwamba wa chromium, wotetezeka kutentha ndi nikeli | Mafuko, zida zoyeretsera kutentha ndi zida zoyeretsera mpweya wotentha. |
| 410/430 | S41000 / S43000 | Magulu a chromium a Martensitic ndi ferritic | Zipangizo zamakina, zipangizo zamagetsi ndi ntchito yowononga dzimbiri pang'ono. |
| 2205 | S32205 / S31803 | Chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri cha Duplex chokhala ndi mphamvu zambiri komanso kukana kwa chloride | Matanki a mankhwala, zida za m'mphepete mwa nyanja ndi makina opondereza. |
| 904L | N08904 | Mtundu wa austenitic wokhala ndi nickel yapamwamba, molybdenum ndi mkuwa | Utumiki wa asidi, kuwongolera kuipitsa mpweya ndi kukonza mankhwala. |
Kuyerekeza kwa Mankhwala
Kapangidwe ka mankhwala kamawongolera kukana dzimbiri, kusinthasintha, kutentha kwambiri komanso magwiridwe antchito a makina. Mitengo yomwe ili pansipa ndi mitundu yosavuta yofotokozera zamakampani ya magiredi ofanana. Kuvomerezedwa komaliza kuyenera kutengera tebulo loyenera la ASTM A240 ndi kusanthula kwenikweni kwa kutentha komwe kwawonetsedwa pa MTC.
| Giredi | Cr | Ni | Mo | Zotsatira Zazinthu |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 304L | Pafupifupi 18-20% | Pafupifupi 8-12% | Zotsalira | Kukana dzimbiri konsekonse komanso magwiridwe antchito abwino opangira. |
| 316L | Pafupifupi 16-18% | Pafupifupi 10-14% | Pafupifupi 2-3% | Kukana dzimbiri komwe kulipo kwakhala kwabwino poyerekeza ndi 304L. |
| 310S | Pafupifupi 24-26% | Pafupifupi 19-22% | Zotsalira | Imathandizira kukana okosijeni pa kutentha kwakukulu. |
| 2205 | Pafupifupi 22-23% | Pafupifupi 4.5-6.5% | Pafupifupi 3-3.5% | Mphamvu yayikulu komanso kukana kwa chloride bwino. |
| 904L | Pafupifupi 19-23% | Pafupifupi 23-28% | Pafupifupi 4-5% | Kukana kwa asidi kwakukulu komwe kumathandizidwa ndi nickel, molybdenum ndi mkuwa. |
Katundu wa Makina
ASTM A240 imatchula makhalidwe ochepa a makina malinga ndi mtundu ndi momwe zinthu zilili. Mitengo yeniyeni imasiyana malinga ndi makulidwe, njira yozungulira, kutentha ndi njira yoyesera. Magiredi otsika a austenitic nthawi zambiri amapereka mphamvu zambiri komanso kusinthasintha bwino, pomwe magiredi awiri amapereka mphamvu zambiri zokolola.
| Giredi | Khalidwe Locheperako Lokhala ndi Makokedwe | Khalidwe Lochepa la Kuchuluka kwa Zokolola | Chidziwitso cha Uinjiniya |
|---|---|---|---|
| 304L | Pafupifupi 485 MPa malinga ndi zofunikira zamakampani | Pafupifupi 170 MPa | Kupangika bwino komanso kugwira ntchito bwino kwa welding. |
| 316L | Pafupifupi 485 MPa | Pafupifupi 170 MPa | Kachitidwe kofanana ndi ka 304L ndi molybdenum yowonjezera. |
| 310S | Zofanana ndi zocheperako za mbale za austenitic | Kudalira kalasi ndi makulidwe | Kapangidwe ka kutentha kwambiri kamafuna deta yovomerezeka, osati kuchuluka kwa mphamvu zomangika pa kutentha kwa chipinda chokha. |
| 2205 | Pamwamba kuposa magiredi wamba a austenitic | Pafupifupi kawiri kuchuluka kwa zokolola zomwe zimafanana ndi 304L/316L | Ikhoza kulola kukhathamiritsa kwa makulidwe pambuyo poti yavomerezedwa ndi uinjiniya. |
ASTM A240, ASTM A480 ndi ASME SA240
| Buku lothandizira | Ntchito Yaikulu | Udindo wa Wogula |
|---|---|---|
| ASTM A240/A240M | Imafotokoza zofunikira za makina osapanga dzimbiri, mankhwala ophera tizilombo toyambitsa matenda komanso zofunikira pa makina. | Giredi ya boma, mawonekedwe a chinthu, miyeso ndi kope lofunikira. |
| ASTM A480/A480M | Amapereka zofunikira zonse za zinthu zosiyanasiyana, kulekerera, kumaliza ndi kuyitanitsa. | Fotokozani kulekerera kulikonse kwa polojekiti padera. |
| ASME SA240 | Mafotokozedwe a zinthu za ASME omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zokhudzana ndi ma code ngati kuli kofunikira. | Tsimikizani kuvomereza motsatira malamulo oyenera a kapangidwe ka ASME. |
| EN 10204 | Amatanthauzira mitundu ya zikalata zowunikira monga 3.1 ndi 3.2. | Tchulani mtundu wa chikalatacho pa nthawi yopereka mawu. |
Kusankha Kumaliza Pamwamba
| Malizitsani | Kufotokozera | Kagwiritsidwe Ntchito Kawirikawiri | Cheke cha Wogula |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nambala 1 | Yophikidwa mu uvuni, yophikidwa mu uvuni ndi kutenthedwa ndi kutentha | Matanki, zombo ndi nyumba zamafakitale | Fotokozani kukula, kusonkhanitsa ndi kuvomereza zolakwika pamwamba. |
| 2B | Kuzizira kozungulira, kutentha, kuzizidwa ndi kuzizira komanso khungu lopepuka | Zipangizo za chakudya, malo osungiramo zinthu ndi zinthu zoyera | Tsimikizirani malire a filimu yoteteza ndi mawonekedwe. |
| BA | Malo owala ozungulira ozizira | Zipangizo, zokongoletsera komanso zoyera pamwamba | Zofunikira pakuzindikira ndi kuvomereza mawonekedwe a boma. |
| Nambala 4 | Mapeto opukutidwa ndi kuwongolera | Zipangizo zomangamanga, khitchini ndi zaukhondo | Fotokozani momwe grit imagwirira ntchito, kuuma kwake, ndi njira yopukutira. |
| Mbale Yotsika | Malo olemera opangidwa ndi makina kapena nthaka | Makina opangidwa mwaluso komanso maziko a zida | Tchulani makulidwe mukamaliza kupukuta ndi kusalala. |
Kuyesa Kwabwino ndi Kutsata Zinthu
Unyolo wovomerezeka wa ASTM A240 umalumikiza chizindikiro cha mbale ndi nambala ya kutentha, satifiketi ya mphero ndi zolemba zowunikira. Pamene mbale zadulidwa m'zidutswa zazing'ono, chizindikiritso chosamutsidwa kapena mapu owongolera kutsata ayenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito pamene zofunikira pa polojekiti zimafuna kuwongolera kwathunthu kwa nambala ya kutentha.
| Chinthu Choyendera | Cholinga | Kutsimikizira kwa Wogula |
|---|---|---|
| EN 10204 3.1 MTC | Mlingo wa zikalata, nambala ya kutentha, chemistry, katundu wa makina ndi momwe zilili. | Fananizani kuchuluka kwa kutentha, miyeso ndi muyezo ndi PO. |
| Kuyesa kwa PMI | Imathandizira kutsimikizira kwa alloy ndi kuwongolera kotsutsana ndi kusakaniza. | PMI siilowa m'malo mwa kusanthula kwathunthu kwa labotale. |
| Kuyesa Kwamphamvu | Imatsimikizira kulimba kwa kukanikiza, kulimba kwa kugawa ndi kutalika. | Unikani njira yoyesera, makulidwe ndi miyezo yoyenera yovomerezeka. |
| Kuyesa kwa Ultrasonic | Amazindikira kusagwirizana kwa mkati mwa mbale yolemera kapena yofunikira. | Muyezo wa mayeso a boma, kuchuluka kwa kusanthula ndi mulingo wovomerezeka. |
| Kuyang'anira Magawo | Imayang'ana makulidwe, m'lifupi, m'litali, kusalala komanso momwe m'mphepete mwake mulili. | Tsimikizani maziko a kulekerera ndi malo oyezera. |
| Kuyang'anira kwa Gulu Lachitatu | Imapereka ndemanga yodziyimira payokha isanatumizidwe. | Fotokozani mfundo zochitira umboni ndi kuikirapo mtima musanapange. |
Mbale ya ASTM A240 Poyerekeza ndi Mafotokozedwe Ena a Zamalonda
| Kufotokozera | Fomu Yogulitsa | Kugwiritsa Ntchito Kawirikawiri | Musasokoneze ndi |
|---|---|---|---|
| ASTM A240 | Mbale, pepala ndi mzere | Mitsempha yopanikizira ndi ntchito zonse za zinthu zopanda mpweya | Chitoliro, chubu, bala kapena zolumikizira zopangidwa ndi forged. |
| ASTM A276 | Mipiringidzo ndi mawonekedwe | Zipangizo zopangira makina ndi mipiringidzo yomangira | Chitsimikizo cha Flatplate. |
| ASTM A312 | Chitoliro chopanda msoko komanso cholumikizidwa | Njira ndi mapaipi opanikizika | Chida chogwiritsidwa ntchito kupanga chipolopolo cha mtsempha. |
| ASTM A693 | Mbale yolimba ya mvula, pepala ndi mzere | Ntchito zolimbitsa mvula mwamphamvu kwambiri | Mbale ya austenitic yolumikizidwa ndi annealed. |
Mapulogalamu a Mafakitale
| Kugwiritsa ntchito | Gulu Lofanana | Chofunikira Chofunika | Kuyang'ana pa RFQ |
|---|---|---|---|
| Matanki a Chakudya ndi Zakumwa | 304L kapena 316L | Kuyera, kuwotcherera, komanso kukana dzimbiri | Mapeto, kukhwima kwa pamwamba ndi kulondola kwa mbale. |
| Ziwiya Zopangira Mankhwala | 316L, 904L, 2205 kapena aloyi wosankhidwa ndi polojekiti | Kukana dzimbiri ndi kapangidwe ka kupanikizika | Kusankhidwa kwa zinthu za ASME, UT ndi chilolezo cha dzimbiri. |
| Zipangizo Zothandizira Kutentha | 310S, 321 kapena 347 | Kukana kwa okosijeni ndi kukhazikika kwa kutentha | Mlengalenga wogwirira ntchito, kutentha ndi njira zopangira. |
| Zipangizo Zapanyanja ndi Zochotsa Mchere M'madzi | 2205, 2507 kapena kalasi yapamwamba kwambiri | Kukana kwa kloridi ndi mphamvu zambiri | Kuchiza kutentha, kulinganiza gawo ndi kuyesa dzimbiri. |
| Kupanga Zomangamanga | 304 kapena 316 | Maonekedwe, kusalala ndi kusinthasintha komaliza | Kuwongolera kopukutira, filimu yoteteza ndi kufananiza kwa batch. |
Zolakwa Zofala kwa Ogula
Kuyitanitsa ASTM A240 popanda kulekerera kwa ASTM A480:Kutsatira magiredi sikungotanthauza zokha kuti pali chilichonse chofunikira pa kukula, kusalala kapena pamwamba. Malire okhwima ayenera kufotokozedwa.
Kusokoneza ASTM A240 ndi ASME SA240:Zipangizozo zitha kukhala zogwirizana ndiukadaulo, koma mapulojekiti okhala ndi ma code okakamiza ayenera kugwiritsa ntchito dzina lovomerezeka ndi malamulo oyendetsera ndi zolemba za polojekiti.
Kugwiritsa ntchito "mbale 316" popanda giredi L:316 ndi 316L ali ndi malire osiyana a kaboni. Zipangizo zowotcherera nthawi zambiri zimagwiritsa ntchito 316L kuti zichepetse chiopsezo cha kukhudzidwa.
Kupempha UT popanda muyezo woyeserera:"UT yoyesedwa" si yokwanira. RFQ iyenera kufotokoza njira yoyesera, kufalikira kwa scanning, kukhudzidwa kwa ma reference, ndi kalasi yovomerezeka.
Kulandira satifiketi popanda kufanana ndi mbale:Chiwerengero cha kutentha, giredi, miyeso, kuchuluka ndi muyezo ziyenera kugwirizana ndi mndandanda wa zilembo ndi zopakira.
Kunyalanyaza chilolezo chopangira makina:Mbale yolemera yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zinthu ingafunike makulidwe owonjezera, kusalala bwino kapena malo apansi pambuyo pa ntchito zochotsa kupsinjika.
Mndandanda Wowunikira wa ASTM A240 Plate RFQ
✅ Bodza la ASTM A240/A240M kapena ASME SA240 ndi kope lofunikira.
✅ Dziwani mtundu wa chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri ndi chizindikiro cha UNS.
✅ Perekani makulidwe, m'lifupi, m'litali, kuchuluka ndi kusiyana kovomerezeka kwa miyeso.
✅ Fotokozani chinthu chotenthedwa kapena chozizira komanso chomwe chikufunika kumalizidwa.
✅ Mkhalidwe wa m'mphepete, kusalala, gawo lothandizira makina ndi filimu yoteteza.
✅ Pemphani EN 10204 3.1 MTC ndi chizindikiro cha nambala ya kutentha.
✅ Lembani PMI, UT, mayeso a dzimbiri kapena kuwunika kwa anthu ena ngati pakufunika.
✅ Tanthauzirani kulongedza katundu wotumizidwa kunja, kulemera kwa phukusi, chitetezo cha chinyezi ndi doko lopitako.
N'chifukwa Chiyani Muyenera Kutchula Mbale Yachitsulo Chosapanga Dzimbiri ya ASTM A240 Molondola?
Kufotokozera bwino zinthu kumathandiza kuti zinthu zisasinthe mtundu, kusakhuthala, kumalizidwa kosayenera komanso ziphaso zosakwanira. Zimapatsanso mphero kapena mwini masheya chidziwitso chokwanira kuti asankhe njira yoyenera yopangira, dongosolo lowunikira, ndi njira yopakira.
Mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri ya ASTM A240 ndi yoyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'njira zosiyanasiyana, koma muyezo uyenera kuonedwa ngati maziko a oda yogulira osati oda yonse. Giredi, zofunikira za ASME, kulekerera kwa miyeso, momwe pamwamba pake palili, mayeso ndi kutsata ziyenera kulumikizidwa ndi kapangidwe ka zida zenizeni.
FAQ
Kodi ASTM A240 imaphimba mbale ndi pepala?
Inde. ASTM A240 imaphimba mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri, pepala ndi mzere. Dongosolo logulira liyenerabe kuzindikira mawonekedwe a chinthu chofunikira, kukula kwake, kutha kwake, ndi kulekerera kwake.
Kodi ASTM A240 ndi yoyenera kugwiritsa ntchito mitsempha yamagazi?
Mafotokozedwewa akuphatikizapo zipangizo zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pa zombo zopanikizika. Kupanga ma code kungafunike ASME SA240, giredi yovomerezeka, zikalata zovomerezeka komanso kutsatira malamulo oyenera opangira zombo.
Kodi mtengo wokhazikika wa mbale ya ASTM A240 ndi wotani?
Mbale yozungulira yotenthedwa nthawi zambiri imakhala ndi kumaliza kwa Nambala 1. Pepala lozungulira lozizira likhoza kuperekedwa ngati 2D, 2B kapena BA. Kugwiritsa ntchito zokongoletsera ndi ukhondo kungafunike kumaliza kwa Nambala 4, galasi kapena kowongolera.
Kodi PMI ndi yovomerezeka pansi pa ASTM A240?
PMI nthawi zambiri ndi chinthu chofunikira chowonjezera pa projekiti osati chofunikira chokha pa oda iliyonse. Izi ziyenera kufotokozedwa mu oda yogulira pamene kutsimikizira kwa alloy kukufunika.
Kodi kuyezetsa kwa ultrasound kumafunika liti?
UT nthawi zambiri imapemphedwa kuti igwiritsidwe ntchito pa mbale zolemera, zida zopondereza, zida zogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi makina kapena zomangira zofunika kwambiri. Muyezo woyesera ndi njira zovomerezeka ziyenera kufotokozedwa.
Kodi ndi chiyani chomwe chiyenera kufufuzidwa pa MTC?
Chongani wopanga, nambala ya kutentha, giredi, dzina la UNS, muyezo, miyeso, chemistry, makhalidwe omangika, chithandizo cha kutentha, kutsimikizira satifiketi ndi zotsatira zina zilizonse zowonjezera.
Zogulitsa Zogwirizana ndi ASTM A240 Zosapanga Zitsulo
| Chogulitsa | Kugwiritsa Ntchito Zinthu Mwachizolowezi |
|---|---|
| Mbale ya Chitsulo Chosapanga Dzimbiri ya 304 ndi 316 | Mbale ndi pepala la ASTM A240 la matanki, zida za chakudya, kupanga mankhwala ndi kukonza mafakitale. |
| Mbale ya ASTM A240 316L Yopanda Zitsulo | Mbale yokhala ndi molybdenum yochepa ya kaboni yogwiritsidwa ntchito popangira zida zamagetsi, chakudya ndi mankhwala. |
| Mbale ya Chitsulo Chosapanga Dzimbiri ya 310S | Mbale yosatentha ya uvuni, makina otentha a gasi ndi zida zochizira kutentha. |
| Mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri ya 904L | Mbale yosapanga dzimbiri yokhala ndi aloyi wambiri yogwiritsira ntchito asidi, kuwongolera kuipitsa mpweya komanso kukonza mankhwala. |
Mapeto
ASTM A240 imapereka maziko a mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri, pepala ndi mzere womwe umagwiritsidwa ntchito pazida zopanikizika komanso kupanga zinthu zambiri. Kugula kodalirika kumafuna zambiri kuposa kungotchula muyezo. Wogula ayenera kusankha giredi yoyenera, mawonekedwe a chinthucho, kumaliza kwake, kulekerera kwake, kutentha kwake, kuchuluka kwa chiyeso ndi mtundu wa satifiketi.
Funsani Mndandanda Wowunikira wa ASTM A240 Plate
Lumikizanani ndi SAKY STEEL kuti mupemphe mndandanda wa RFQ womwe ungatsitsidwe, mtengo wa mbale yachitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri ya ASTM A240, EN 10204 3.1 MTC, kuyesa kwa PMI, kuyesa kwa ultrasound, miyeso yosinthidwa, kumaliza pamwamba, kuyang'ana kwa chipani chachitatu ndi kulongedza kunja.
Tumizani giredi, nambala ya UNS, kope lokhazikika, makulidwe, m'lifupi, kutalika, kuchuluka, kumaliza, kulekerera, kutentha, zofunikira pa mayeso, mtundu wa satifiketi ndi doko lopita. Gulu lathu lidzawunikanso zomwe zafotokozedwazo ndikukonzekera lingaliro loyenera la zinthu zomwe zaperekedwa.
Nthawi yotumizira: Juni-30-2026